Hummingbirds and Food Plants

 Hummingbirds and their food-plants rely to a large extent on each other for food supply and pollination service, respectively. This mutual relationship has co-evolved for millions of years and across the Americas involving over 330 hummingbird species and an estimated nearly 8000 plant species relying on hummingbirds as their principle pollinators.

Although birds other than hummingbirds also act as pollinators, hummingbird plant interactions are one of the most striking examples of bird-plant co-evolution, and the associated morphological adaptations have been studied intensively e.g, Snow.

 These studies have found that plants adapted to hummingbird pollination typically are odorless, have a long and narrow conspicuous orange-red tubular corolla, and produce extensive dilute nectar - broadly matching the sensory capabilities, morphology and energetic demands of hummingbirds. Similarly, hummingbirds show an array of features considered nectar-feeding adaptations, such as the capability to hover, a specialized tongue, highly specialized and variable bill morphologies, as well as a minute body size.

The smallest of all birds is the Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) endemic to the Cuban archipelago, including the main island of Cuba and Isle of Youth (formerly Isle of Pines), in the West Indies. Of the 15 hummingbird species endemic to the West Indies, the Bee Hummingbird is the only species considered threatened on the IUCN red list.

Although the Bee Hummingbird is the smallest bird in the World, is categorized as Near Threatened and its population size is clearly declining, only very basic information regarding its distribution and reproduction has previously been reported. Almost nothing is known about its feeding ecology. For instance, apart from the record of some 15 food plants, nothing is reported about its preferred food plants or the overlap in flower use with the larger-sized Cuban Emerald (Chlorostilbon ricordii) - the only other resident Cuban hummingbird.

We here: 1) identify and describe the floral traits of several food plants the Bee Hummingbird uses; 2) report to what extent the Cuban Emerald uses the same flowers as the Bee Hummingbird; and 3) compare our data on flower use with those previously reported, and discuss how our results could direct future studies beneficial for the conservation of the Bee Hummingbird.

Each of the identified ten plant species visited by the Bee Hummingbird belongs to different plant families, of which one species (Antigonon leptopus) was introduced to Cuba. The remaining nine plant species are either native or endemic to Cuba (Table 1). Most of the ten flowers visited by the Bee Hummingbird - of which nine were also visited by the Cuban Emerald, as well as insects, such as bees and butterflies - have floral traits that fall outside the traditional ornithophilous syndrome, noticeably most flowers had little nectar and a short, white corolla, although some had more vivid colors.

This indicates that the Bee Hummingbird uses plants with generalized pollination systems as has also been reported for plants visited by small hummingbirds on Trinidad, Tobago, and other islands in the West Indies.

Conclusions. A total of 15 plant species from 15 different genera had previously been reported to be visited by the Bee Hummingbird, but no study had described their floral traits. Of the herein-reported ten food plants, only one species (Hamelia patens) occurs in the 15 genera previously listed as being visited by the Bee hummingbird. Many of the previously reported food plants in the Zapata Swamp were observed in March–June during the breeding season of the Bee Hummingbird, whereas the food plants we here report bloom in the latter part of July, outside the breeding season of the Bee Hummingbird.

In Cuba, the dry season extends from November to April, whereas the wettest months are from June to October (Garrido & Kirkconnell 2000). Therefore, it seems likely that the flower community largely changes between the dry and the rainy season, roughly coinciding with the termination of the Bee Hummingbirds breeding season.

This is the first step in identifying the floral niche of the Bee Hummingbird. We recommend that a quantitative field study be undertaken to evaluate the floral overlap in the context of floral use and availability, and behavioral interactions with the Cuban Emerald (Vaurie 1957) and insect-pollinators, such as the potential negative impact of the non-native honeybee (Apis mellifera). Comparing the herein reported food plants of the Bee Hummingbird with the plant species indicates that it would be essential to examine both dry season and rainy season floral overlap and behavior.

It would also be interesting to study the effect of introduced plants, forest loss, and degradation on the feeding behavior of the Bee Hummingbird. Finally, we recommend that field studies are also conducted in other areas than the Zapata Swamp, e.g., in the Bee Hummingbirds strongholds in the low-lying Guanahacabibes peninsula in western Cuba and in the eastern mountains of Cuchillas del Toa and Sierra Cristal. This should prove valuable for the conservation of the Bee hummingbird, an endemic and threatened species of the Cuban archipelago, West Indies. 

Plain-tailed Warbling-finch

Plain-tailed Warbling-finch Poospiza alticola restricted to the high Andes of north-west Peru (Cajamarca to Ancash), this species inhabits shrubby forest and mixed Polylepis-Gynoxys woodland at 2,900-4,600 m. It seems to favor ravines, but it is scarce even in optimum habitat. High-altitude woodlands are now highly fragmented and further habitat loss and degradation are predicted. The main causes are cutting for firewood and a lack of regeneration due to burning and overgrazing. Other threats include the change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification, road construction, and afforestation with exotic tree species. Although it occurs in Huascarán National Park (Ancash), habitat degradation continues. The estimated population is around 500 to 1600 birds.

Buff-tailed Sicklebill

As its name implies, the most distinctive characteristics of the Buff-tipped Sicklebill are its extreme bill shape and pale cinnamon-buff outer tail feathers with white tips. The sexes are very similar, but young birds can easily be distinguished from adults by pale feather edges on the wings and smaller patches of blue iridescence at the nape. The two subspecies are also very similar, but subsp. gracilis has a less heavily streaked belly and shorter bill than the nominate. 

Sicklebills have relatively short wings for such large hummingbirds, which reduces their flight efficiency and explains their tendency to perch rather than hover when feeding at flowers. Their long tails bob almost constantly, even at rest. In the narrow zone of overlap between the two sicklebill species, the Buff-tailed seems to prefer more open and disturbed habitats than the Whitetipped Sicklebill. Its nest is similar to that of the White-tipped, comprising a loosely woven cup secured with spider silk to the underside of a large leaf.

DISTRIBUTION Subsp. condamini occurs in the eastern Andes of southeastern Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru; subsp. gracilis occurs in the eastern Andes of Peru and northwestern Bolivia

HABITAT Undergrowth, wooded ravines, and stream sides in humid forest, swampy forest, bamboo groves, edges, overgrown clearings, plantations; 600–10,850 ft (180–3,300 m)

SIZE Length: 51⁄8–57⁄8 in (13–15 cm).

Weight: 8–12.5 g

STATUS Least Concern

Gray butcherbird – “Cracticus torquatus”

 Gray butcherbird – “Cracticus torquatus”

SUBFAMILY - Cracticinae

TAXONOMY

Lanius torquatus Latham, 1802, Port Jackson (Sydney), Australia. Three, possibly four subspecies; one large and dark with reduced white in wing in Tasmania (Cracticus torquatus cinereus), another small and dark with reduced white in wing in coastal southeastern Australia between the New South Wales-Queensland border and Melbourne (nominate torquatus), and a third (that may comprise east and west forms) small and paler with extensive white in wing throughout southern and inland Australia from the west coast to coastal Queensland south of Cape York Peninsula (C. t. leucopterus). The gray butcherbird forms a superspecies with the silver-backed butcherbird (C. argenteus) of northwestern Australia and the black-backed butcherbird (C. mentalis) of Cape York Peninsula and dry sectors of southeastern New Guinea.

OTHER COMMON NAMES

French: Cassican à collier;

German: Graurücken-Würgatzel;

Spanish: Pájaro Matarife Gris.

DESCRIPTION

Primary and tall secondary rainforests, particularly along edges and around openings such as tree falls, stream edges, and road cuttings. Densities have been estimated at two birds per 25 acres (10 ha) in suitable habitat. Widely but sparsely distributed year-round residents; solitary, in loose pairs or small family groups of three to five. Live mostly on top of forest canopies, perching upright and motionless for long periods on exposed vantage perches, from which they fly out in extended sallies. From perches and in flight, birds utter distinctive territorial and advertising calls at regular intervals; calls are a series of three or so well spaced mechanical double clicks over four to five seconds. At perches, the singer throws its head violently up and down at each click. Other calls include a harsh monarch-like wheeeit, possibly in warning or agitation, and a seldom-heard wrenlike twittering.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Apparently wholly insectivorous, birds capture food in the air and from the surface of foliage with the bill on sallying flights. Most foraging is done in and above the forest canopy but sometimes extends to lower strata. Food, including dragonflies, beetles, grasshoppers, and other flying insects, is swallowed whole at a perch, without much beating.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Data lacking on timing and duration of events and respective parental contribution. Nests are small, compact cups of twigs and rootlets built-in often exposed positions in horizontal tree forks at the ends of branchlets at 20–115 ft (6–35 m) above the ground; and eggs, usually one per clutch, are cream to pale buff, with a ring of black-brown spotting at the larger end.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

10–12 in (25–30 cm); 2.8–4.0 oz (80–110 g). Medium-sized bull-headed bird with tapered body and black-, gray-, and white-patterned plumage. Head black with white lore spot (between eye and upper bill) and collar, back gray, rump white, tail and wings black with white tips and stripes respectively, and undersurface uniformly grayish white. Eyes dark brown, feet gray, and bills bicolored, with a black tip and gray-white base. Females are usually grayer-breasted and shorter billed than males. Juveniles dull-gray-billed and dully patterned, with dusky-olive and speckled upper parts and yellowish underparts.

DISTRIBUTION

Most of southern and inland Australia north to 20°S, including Tasmania but excluding treeless deserts.

HABITAT

Closed woodland and open forest of eucalypts and acacias, including mallee (Eucalyptus) and mulga (Acacia) scrubs, where the space between tree crowns is about the size of the crowns themselves. Densities range from one bird to about 12 to 49 acres (5–20 ha) in suitable habitat.

BEHAVIOR

Retiring and solitary, in pairs or small family groups, gray butcherbirds live in the mid-and upper strata of trees, spending much of their time perching still and coming to ground only to pounce on prey. They are sedentary, with pairs holding the same territory, 20–99 acres (8–40 ha), year-round, with a larger home range. Both male and female duet antiphonally in songs of fluted whistles and ringing caws, which are also given in alarm and aggression.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Gray butcherbirds are raptorial perch-pouncers, watching from tree perches at 6.5–40 ft (2–12 m) up, then swooping down to ground or branches to snap up prey, which is mostly insects but also small birds, nestlings, reptiles, and mice. Fruit also contributes to the diet. Food is carried back to perch, wedged in crannies or forks and torn apart with the bill for eating; the small weak feet are not used for tethering prey.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Monogamous, forming pair bonds in breeding territories reinforced by much duetting during early breeding. Gray butcherbirds breed mostly between July and August and December and January throughout their range. The nest, a rough but tight cup of twigs lined with finer, often reddish fiber, is placed in upright forks in outer foliage at 10–50 ft (3–15 m) up and takes about four weeks to build. Eggs, in clutches of three to five, are 1.20–1.25 x 0.85–0.95 in (30–32 x 22–24 mm), brownish-green, and finely freckled in red browns, often in a zone around the larger end; they hatch in 22–24 days. The Female builds the nest and incubates unaided, while the male defends the territory. He may assist her in feeding young, which fledge around four weeks. Usually, only one brood is reared per year.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Not threatened, although many populations have declined locally because of habitat clearing and alienation.

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

Some local populations frequent camping sites, feeding on scraps and garbage thrown out by campers. They are called commensals in such circumstances because they benefit from a close association with humans.

Lesser Striped Swallow (Cecropis abyssinica)

Lesser Striped Swallow (Cecropis abyssinica) is a common species, which is distributed along the coast and adjacent interior of the Eastern Cape Province and Transkei, throughout much of KwaZulu-Natal, the Transvaal woodland areas, and most of Swaziland and Zimbabwe. In Botswana, it occurs in the east and commonly in the Okavango, and in Namibia it is found along the Kunene and Kavango rivers, the Caprivi Strip, and scattered records further south. This is one of the most abundant African swallows. It ranges over the greater part of Africa south of the Sahara, except for the open regions in the south and southwest. It is frequently confused with the similar Greater Striped Swallow “H. cucullate” in southern Africa.

Habitat:

It occurs in a variety of woodland and savanna habitats, but for semi-arid Kalahari savannas. Within these regions, it can also be found in cultivated and sub-urban areas. Also, it is very common in lower-lying than higher-lying areas within its range. It is recognized to nest frequently on riverbanks and trees. The bird flight is normally very strong gliding but can be very fast, like that of a Barn Swallow.

Movements:

This species shows complex patterns of movement in the region. It is largely a summer-breeding migrant in South Africa, but some birds are present throughout the year. Especially in the lower-lying eastern areas along the KwaZulu-Natal coast and in the Lowveld of the Transvaal and Swaziland. A winter exodus is also apparent in Zimbabwe. But the presence of birds in this country during the winter is more frequent than in most of South Africa, and birds from the south may pass through or winter in Zimbabwe.

It has been suggested that the Zimbabwean breeding population leaves that country and is replaced by South African migrants during the winter. Hence, mainly from March to October, but the passage of the southern race unitatis through this area is likely from August to September and March to April.

The models for Zones 5 to 8 suggest reduced overwintering, and later arrival and departure times with increasing latitude for unitatis. The departure of birds from their breeding grounds are spread over several weeks and is probably influenced by the stage of breeding of individuals.

Also, the populations start to weaken as early as February and March in most regions. Some nests in the northern Kruger National Park was occupied throughout the year but different individuals used the nests during the summer and winter months, indicating that ‘residency’ does not necessarily involve the same individuals.

Breeding:

A summer-breeding the pattern is shown by the race unitatis in the Eastern Cape Province (Zone 8), KwaZulu-Natal (Zone 7), and Transvaal (Zone 6), with the most breeding recorded August-May and peaking November–December. Breeding starts earlier in the Transvaal than in the Eastern Cape Province. In Zimbabwe breeding occurs throughout the year, but this contains records of unitatis on the plateau and ampliformis in the west, and most records refer to unitatis whose breeding peaks August–December. In Namibia and north-ern Botswana (Zone 1), breeding was recorded March–October for ampliformis indicated peak egg-laying for this race in May.

Interspecific relationships:

This little bird often occurs alongside the Greater Striped Swallow but typically one species tends to be much more common than the other in areas of overlap. Because both species use man-made structures for breeding, they may compete for nest sites and the smaller Lesser Striped Swallow may be at a disadvantage in such situations.

There could also be competing with the much larger Red-breasted Swallow H. semirufa for nest sites, but that species usually nests in more constricted sites than the two striped swallows. Lesser Striped Swallow nests are regularly usurped by White-rumped Swifts Apuscaffer.

Historical distribution and conservation:

Like many Hirundinidae, this species has benefited from nesting in manmade structures and has probably increased, at least in density, in many areas owing to this habit.

Nesting

Lesser Striped Swallow has a soft lining nest, built in a cave or under a rock overhang or a tree branch. However, given the selections, it can opt to make a nest at high places. This little bird willingness to use buildings, bridges, culverts, and similar structures.

Description

Lesser Striped Swallow is 10 to 14cm long, with dark blue upperparts with a vibrant red rump and a rufous-chestnut crown nape and sides of the bird's head. The white and dark streaking showing at underparts white, tawny underwing flight feathers and upper wings are blackish brown. The long beautiful blackish tail normally longer in males than females. However, the young one is a bit browner and dull with less contrast.  

Diet and Foraging

Lesser Striped Swallow diet normally consists of bees, flying ants, beetles, flies, lepidopterans, fruits, and seeds. It feeds alone, or in pairs, also, mixes with other swifts. The bird habitually forages six-meter above ground and 8 to 22 meters over treetops and often over the water. Hence, the birds also hover over vegetation to catch caterpillars and feed around different animals to take insects, perches when eating fruit. Source - CP    

Reference - R.A. Earlé and M. Herremans

The Cloud Cisticola or tink-tink cisticola

 

The Cloud Cisticola or tink-tink cisticola is near-endemic to southern Africa and occurs in South Africa, Angola, Mozambique, Lesotho, and sparsely in Swaziland. However, a widely separated relict population occurs in Zambia and southern Zaire. It occurs in the western and southern Cape Province and from 22°E through the Eastern Cape Province and Transkei (where it is sparse), to the Free State, Transvaal, Lesotho lowlands, and inland KwaZulu-Natal.

Cloud Cisticola is most abundant in the southern Transvaal and the southern and eastern Free State. There is a remarkable cut-off west of25° E. It is included in southeastern Botswana in its range, but it was not recorded there during the atlas period, nor does there seem to be any other confirmed record from that country. Easily confused with four other small grass cisticola species, it is identified mainly on the basis of its call, except for the isolated nominate race in the Western Cape Province, which can be identified by its ventral streaking.

This race is sometimes considered to be a separate species. The atlas records primarily reflect the summer distribution and the map is probably fairly accurate, although some misidentifications are inevitable in this group.

Habitat:

It occurs in short grasslands with relatively low basal cover, mainly in the grassland biome and in the Grassy Karoo; it is absent above 2000 m. It requires open grassland and does not tolerate invasion by scrub and trees. In the Western Cape Province it has colonized and breeds in fields of winter cereal crops. It was reported from estuarine marshland near Port Elizabeth. It is common in Themeda triandra grassland on the Highveld where it over-laps mainly with Ayres’ Cisticola C. ayresii.

Movements:

There is strong seasonality in reporting rates with a drop in winter when the species behaves unobtrusively and is difficult to identify without the help of diagnostic calls and displays. Records from the Western Cape Province show no seasonality, presumably because this population can be identified year-round on plumage. Droughts, overgrazing, and burning affect its habitat and must prompt local movements. There is apparently no record of regular seasonal movements in the literature.

Breeding:

Atlas records confirm that breeding occurs earlier (July–December) in the nominate race in the Western Cape Province than elsewhere, where egg-laying spans late spring and summer (September–March)

Inter specific relationships:

It is most closely related to Ayres’ and Pale crowned C. brunnescens Cisticolas. It overlaps extensively with all four similar small cisticolas. It is a host of the brood-parasitic Cuckoo Finch Anomalospiza imberbis.

Historical distribution and conservation:

It has almost disappeared from the Cape Flats where it was displaced by alien vegetation and development for agriculture and housing. It is suggested that it is more widely distributed in KwaZulu-Natal than recorded in this atlas, but there was some confusion between this species and Ayres’ Cisticola in Cyrus & Robson. It expanded its Transvaal range westwards during the years of good rain in the 1970s.The Cloud Cisticola is not threatened. The ability of the western race to adapt to agriculture means that it was not displaced on a large scale by the loss of indigenous fynbos. Source - CP

Starling Birds – Saints or Sinners?

Starling birds are so familiar that birdwatchers all too often ignore it. Yet, if it were as rare today as it used to be its superb iridescent plumage would rank it as one of the most beautiful of British Birds. The starling is one of our most common birds. More than six million pairs breed every year.

In the winter they are joined by at least 30 million more individuals that migrate here from northern and eastern Europe. Yet, up until the middle of the last century, the starling was relatively uncommon in Britain. The rise in the British population is part of a general pattern throughout Europe in which starlings have increased in numbers and spread westwards.

Omnivorous eaters

The reasons for this population increase is not completely understood but an important factor is the bird's ability to live on a wide variety of foods. Fruits, seeds, flying insects, caterpillars, grubs, earthworms and household waste are all eaten, although the amounts taken of these different foods vary with the season.

In spring the starling's diet consists mainly of insects and their larvae; in summer fruits become important; by winter these are replaced with seeds. Throughout the year, however, animal foods remain an important source of protein. Another reason for the starling's success is that, during the last century or so, large areas of Europe's indigenous forests have been cleared to create grassland for farming.

Habitats

Close cropped grassland is the starling's favorite habitat. One can often see those probing grassroots for invertebrates such as caterpillars, earthworms, and leatherjackets (the larvae of crane flies and a serious agricultural. During the breeding season, starlings spend most of their feeding time in grassland.

However, at other times of the year, they spread out into new habitats a necessity if they are to take full advantage of their omnivorous nature. Bushes, hedgerows, and trees are visited by starlings for fruits such as cherries, elderberries and sloes. Moreover, they also search stubble fields, newly sown cereal fields and farmyards for seeds.

Forming flocks

People often ask how starlings gather so quickly and in such numbers when food is put out into a garden. Starlings have an excellent memory, especially when it comes to remembering places where food appears regularly and in abundance. These places are always under observation by at least one bird. When food appears, one starling flies down to investigate.

If it begins to peck, then all the other starlings nearby recognize this as a sign of food and fly down to join in. Within a very short time, a feeding flock has formed. The formation of a flock for feeding is advantageous for the flock members in that they can feed much faster than when they are on their own.

There are many more eyes on the look-out for predators such as cats and sparrow hawks. Against this, however, is the problem that a flock can grow too big for the food source, with the result that bickering and fighting ensue. The starlings' An omnivorous diet means that.

Depending on what they are eating, a large flock can either inflict great damage or be of great benefit. The starlings' consumption of large numbers of leatherjackets is an obvious boon to the farmer but, on the other hand, they can devastate cherry orchards that are in fruit.

Roosting by the million

As well as feeding in flocks, starlings also roost in flocks. Some times more than a million birds gather together in night roosts, attracting large numbers of predators. In places such as Trafalgar Square, huge flocks can be seen wheeling around and darkening the sky at dusk.

Quite why starlings roost in such numbers is not yet known, but the advantages must be considerable since they outweigh the attentions of predators. It may be that roosting presents a good opportunity for poorly fed birds to learn from their better-fed neighbors the location of good food supplies.

Nesting in letterboxes

The starling's choice of nesting site shows again how well it takes advantage of opportunities presented by a man. Its most typical nest site is a natural hole, usually in a tree but also on a cliff. However, any hole of the right size and situation will do: cavities in the roofs of houses and farm buildings are especially popular, and on occasions, it even nests in letterboxes.

The breeding season begins in April. The male chooses his nest site and starts to build the nest a bulky affair of dried grasses decorated with fresh green vegetation and the petals of spring flowers. The breeding season is the only time of year when starlings are territorial.

The male defends a small territory around his nest site, but other breeding pairs are tolerated only a few yards away. Once the male has built his nest he tries to attract a female by flying inside the nest hole and singing. Once the male has a mate, she completes the nest, lining the cup with material that can range from fine grasses and feathers to string and cellophane.

Eggs and Young

Between three and six eggs may be laid, though the usual clutch is five. The eggs are small, about 3cm (1in) long, and clear pale blue or blue-green with no markings. Incubation is carried out mostly by the female and takes about 11 days. At first, the young chicks are blind and without any feathering, save for a few tufts of down.

But the chicks grow quickly since they are fed by both parents on a protein-rich diet of invertebrates; in the first 12 days their weight increases from 5g (oz) to 60g (20z). After the twelfth day they virtually cease to add weight, but their feathers begin to develop rapidly and by the time the chicks are 21 days old they are ready to leave the nest.

In most years the parents begin a second clutch of eggs. Between the first and second broods, starlings often swap partners. The female birds are moving on to join the males at the other nests. And the situation is further complicated by the fact that a few male starlings are polygamous, having two females occupying nearby nests.

Mimicry in birds

The starling's song is not particularly musical but it is remarkable for its mimicry. Sometimes it mimics phrases from the songs of neighboring starlings, but it can also mimic the calls of other birds, including bullfinches, curlews, tawny owls, and green woodpeckers. It can even imitate mammal noises-as well as inanimate sounds, such as telephones ringing.

Ornithologists have discovered that, with some species, if a male possesses a wide repertoire of songs it has a better chance of breeding successfully. This explains why starlings make such a variety of noises but not why they mimic 'foreign' sounds rather than create their own distinct sounds. That remains a mystery.

Starlings are closely related to those master-mimics, the mynah birds. Unlike the mynahs, however, starlings cannot imitate human speech. Mimicry is not confined to the starling family: parrots and jackdaws reproduce words, and many species imitate other birds.

Read More – The Curlew Bird and Its Cousin

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Pomarine Skua (Stercorarius pomarinus)

Identification

Pomarine Jaeger is normally 46–51 cm in length (including tail up to 19 cm) with an average weight of 125–135 cm. Rather larger and distinctly bulkier than Arctic Skua (or Parasitic Jaeger). It has a relatively heavier body, deeper belly, broader-based wings, heavier head and bill, and stouter neck. So, overall bulk can recall Herring Gull (Arctic’s bulk recalls Mew Gull).

Bill is obviously heavy and two-toned (with a pale base and dark tip) at all ages, recalling 1st-winter Glaucous Gull and visible even at long range. The major identification problems revolve around small Pomarines and large Arctics. In-flight, typically looks Broad-bodied and even pot-bellied, with a length of ‘rear end’ (i.e. extension of the body behind wings to the tip of the tail, excluding extensions).

Therefore, about equal to wing width (at a point roughly midway from carpal joint to base); ‘rear end’ is longer than wing width in both Arctic and Long-tailed. But markedly shorter in Great (and vagrant South Polar). Wing structure differs, with ‘arm’ being longer and broader than in Arctic while primaries are relatively shorter.

Flight progression generally steady, being slower, heavier and less inclined to glide or ‘shear’ than Arctic. Away from breeding grounds, where feeds mainly on lemmings, eggs and young birds, more of a direct feeder (on fish) or scavenger (feeding on carrion) and less kleptoparasitic than Arctic. More aggressive in pursuit of other seabirds than Arctic, frequently attacking (and sometimes killing) victims as opposed to harrying them to make them disgorge.

Adult summer has broad and blunt-ended tail projections, not narrow and pointed as in Arctic, which are twisted at the tips and appear to form a diagnostic spoon-shaped ‘blob’. Unless these broken off or re-growing, identification is simple.

Plumage otherwise rather like Arctic, varying from birds with almost all-whitish underparts to uniform blackish-brown overall. Compared with Arctic, pale morph has a breast band usually broader and more mottled. Although sometimes absent (especially in males. Many of which have only a dark wedge on each side of breast) and often a stronger buff washes to sides of the neck. While flanks and lower belly are typically dusky or heavily mottled in females (less so, or even not at all in males).

Arctics often have distinct breast band and brownish lower belly, but flanks are usually clean (except in intermediates). Coloration of the cap, upperparts, breast band and ventral area is darker in tone in Pomarine. Dark morph all dark, with browner throat and sides of neck, looking more uniformly dark than dark morph Arctic. Which shows a more contrastingly darker cap. Intermediates exceptionally rare.

Adult winter has shorter tail projections (or lacks them) and in pale morph body plumage is barred to varying extent, with irregular pale feather tips on upperparts. Especially mantle, scapulars and upper tail coverts), recalling immature (but without barring on underwing coverts, which are uniform blackish). Best separated from Arctic by different ‘jizz’.

Juvenile variable, but great majority fairly dark, differing from juvenile Arctic chiefly in overall bulk. This is very pale juveniles are rare and very dark juveniles are uncommon, juvenile Pomarine typically being far less variable than either of the other two Stercorarius skuas. Dark tips to whitish greater underwing primary coverts divide the whitish bases of primaries from a whitish primary-covert crescent.

This double whitish flash is often a very helpful character in the short to medium range. (Note, however, that palest Arctics can show a suggestion of such a crescent and the very darkest Pomarines may lack it.) Body generally slightly darker than underwing coverts in Pomarine, more uniform in Arctic, and ground color to underwing coverts often paler, making barring stand out more.

In a few very dark Arctics, underwing coverts appear very dark and apparently unbarred. Feather fringes to upperparts and barring on upper tail coverts and underparts less rufous in fresh plumage than in typical juvenile Arctic, with barring on both upper tail and under-tail coverts more even, less wavy.

Head more uniformly colored (typically a deep grey-brown), with little or no sign of a paler nape, of darker streaking or of a paler area (‘noseband’) above bill base (all characteristic of Arctic), and upper tail coverts paler.

Arctic often shows a contrast between paler nape and darker crown. The darker birds showing a combination of pale upper tail and under-tail coverts and uniformly dark head (i.e. without paler nape) are Pomarine. While those showing obviously paler nape than upper tail coverts are Arctic. However, that 1st-summer Pomarine does show contrasting paler nape like Arctic.)

Additionally, although bill color and pattern much the same in both species, the blacktip to the larger, deeper bill of Pomarine is more conspicuous at a longer range. Usually lacks obvious whitish tips to primaries shown by all but darkest Arctic and often visible at rest (although a few pale Pomarines do have them) and has darker marginal coverts along leading edge of wing than in most Arctic.

Also has blunt, not pointed, tips to central tail feathers, but this feature usually of limited value in the field. Because of body bulk, larger individuals could be confused with Great Skua and especially with vagrant South Polar Skua at long range, but the latter has a more extensive white patch on the upper wing and shorter ‘rear end’ (see above). See also vagrant South Polar Skua.

Sex and Age

Sexes similar, but adult male summer usually cleaner on breast and flanks (often lacking dark breast band and flanks entirely). Most of moult to winter plumage takes place in winter quarters but projecting central tail feathers often lost (or damaged) earlier. Adult winter pale morph resembles immature, but underwing dark, not barred, and distinctive twisted tail projection often present.

Adult winter dark morphs little different from summer plumage but can have only short tail projection. Paler 1st-summer individuals like juvenile (see Identification), but have a more prominent tail projection, pale nape (like Arctic), and pale fringes to scapulars and upper wing coverts narrower or absent; dark individuals inseparable from dark juveniles.

2nd-winter pale morph much as adult winter pale morph but underwing barred like a juvenile. 2nd-summer pale morph recalls adult summer pale morph, but tail projection short and extensive barring still present on underbody and underwing. Virtually as an adult by third or fourth summer, but often retains some winter plumage on head, body, and underwing.

Fully adult plumage attained by the fifth summer. Immature dark morph much as adult from second winter, but even more uniformly dark, without much contrast between darker cap and paler sides of face and neck. It becomes an adult by the third summer.

Voice

Pomarine Skua rather silent away from colonies, where gives a series of high, nasal screams during territorial disputes: ‘g-waer, g-waer, g-waer’. Also gives a low harsh ‘kek’ when alarmed.

Status and Habitat

Pomarine Skua is not uncommon. Migrates SW and S, joined by breeders from Siberia, to winter in tropical Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. Most move off the western seaboard of Europe and Africa on migration. But minor passage route through Baltic and presumed to move high overland to reach the Indian Ocean.

It breeds on coastal tundra; the population in a given area varies according to lemming abundance. Away from breeding grounds pelagic. Only exceptionally observed inland.

Read More – Beautiful Black and White Wagtails / The Lesser Goldfinch (Spinus psaltria) / The Himalayan Cutia / The fire-tailed myzornis / Pando – The One Tree Forest / Great Blue Heron

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RING OUZEL (Turdus torquatus)

Identification

Ring Ouzel is resembling with common Blackbird in size, shape and basic coloration. However, at all ages, pale edges to wing feathers make wings appear paler than the rest of birds in flight. 

The male bird is distinctive; sooty-black overall with a prominent white breast band and greyish or whitish (in race amicorum) fringes to wing feathers. The bill is yellow with a blackish tip in the breeding season (also shows blackish base to upper mandible at other times).

In autumn and winter, the blackness of plumage obscured by pale feather fringes and breast band less obvious owing to brownish tips to white feathers. 1st-years in fresh autumn plumage have even broader feather fringes and breast band even less distinct.

However, the Female bird is considerably browner than male, with brownish scaling within breast band and pale scaling on underparts; in autumn and winter is even more prominently scaled. 1st-years in autumn have breast band very obscure, or even absent. Such birds differ from Common Blackbird is having to scale on body plumage and pale edges to wing feathers.

Beware partial-albino Common Blackbird with white breast band, but calls, wing pattern, and body scaling should prevent confusion. A bird of the open country, shy and wary, usually flying considerable distances when flushed uttering harsh ‘chakking’ call (quite unlike calls of Common Blackbird).

Readily perches on stone walls, rocky outcrops or scree slopes and trees; will feed on berry-bearing bushes in autumn. It is usually solitary on breeding grounds but forms small parties on migration and in winter.

Sex and Age

In fresh plumage, colors dulled by pale feather fringing, but male much sootier than female and with more obvious breast band (sullied brown). Juvenile spotted like young Common Blackbird, but less rufous, with underparts scaled whitish and pale edges to wing feathers.

Moreover, 1st-years have broader pale edges to body feathers when fresh (in autumn) than respective adults and breast bands almost obscured, especially in females.

Geographical Variation

Mountains of C and S Europe is inhabited by alpestris which has much broader pale fringes, especially on underparts, and belly appears whitish even in spring. Birds of the Caucasus and E Turkey, amicorum, have wing feathers very broadly pale-fringed, appearing almost pale winged in flight.

VOICE

ring ouzel usual call is very hard ‘tak-tak-tak’, sometimes prolonged into a rattling chatter. Song far-carrying, consisting of several clear, melancholy piping notes (e.g. ‘tu-li tu-li tu-li’), often followed by a chuckle.

Status and Habitat

In addition to the mapped range, it has bred Faeroes, Belgium, Denmark, Latvia, Estonia.) In breeding season, mountainsides, quarries, rocky outcrops, and moorland gullies and ravines, locally even on coastal cliffs. Winters both on dry, scrubby hillsides and in open oak woodland. On passage, also in lowland hedgerows, coastal pastures, etc.

Nesting and Diet

The ring ouzel usually build nests among rocks, or bushes, laying many pale blue eggs and molted with brown, in a neat cup-shaped nest. As this is omnivorous bird prefers to eat wide range of insects, small rodents, seeds, invertebrates, adult larval beetles, reptiles, earthworms, and berries. 

Also Read: The Orange-Breasted Bunting / The fire-tailed myzornis / The Bar-tailed Desert Lark / Dusky Naumann’s Thrush (Turdus eunomus)

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