The Complex Behavior of Songbird

For Songbirds singing is a complex behavior that must be learned. It has stimulated rapidly advancing researching various disciplines, notably neurobiology and behavioral ecology.  But do not understand in detail how sound is produced by the birds’ vocal organ, the syrinx. The main reason for this is that the syrinx is located at the base of the trachea (windpipe).

To making it relatively inaccessible to direct physiological studies the powerful, direct methods that have been effectively used to study sound production in the human voice box cannot easily is adapted to investigate the avian syrinx.

So, the ideas about sound generation in birds are based on indirect approaches, such as analysis of vocalizations and of the morphology of the syrinx, and theoretical models. The combination of indirect and direct approaches can support to overcome these difficulties. The careful analysis of zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) song revealed linear and nonlinear phenomena.

That is including switches from periodic to a periodic or chaotic oscillations and period doubling. Also, transitions from linear to nonlinear dynamics occurred rapidly (within 1 ms), without silent intervals between the two states. The transitions arise from intrinsic properties of the vibrating components of the syrinx rather than from complex neural control.

So far, it was presumed that the central nervous system directly controls the often-intricate temporal pattern of song. In birds, singing contains the expiratory muscles that line the body wall and generate pulses of increased air pressure by compressing the posterior air sacs. These pulses define the coarse temporal pattern, which can be modified by activity of the syringa muscles.

These muscles are well attached to the syrinx. Because they turn sound production on and off by opening and closing the airways through the syrinx. Also, the respiratory and syringeal muscles also control the acoustic structure of song such as sound frequency and amplitude, and frequency modulation. An intricate network of brain areas controls the respiratory and syringeal muscles during song production.

But we now learn that intrinsic mechanical properties of the syrinx can contribute to temporal and acoustic song patterns. These patterns are independent of complex central control, needing a minimal contribution (in the form of slowly changing pressure from the respiratory and vocal muscles.

This is discovered by studying the vibratory behavior of the zebra finch syrinx in an in vitro preparation. Moreover, the sounds induced by drawing air through the excised syrinx in some species of bird. The acoustic versatility of the song is an indicator of male reproductive fitness. So, this may be important for the choice of mate and encounters between members of the same sex.

Also, If the peripherally generated acoustic structure requires a less precise motor control than complex sound modulation controlled by the action of muscles. It is also weighted differently by a listener who is trying to work out the ‘quality’ of the singer? The findings are also of practical importance for researchers trying to quantify the quality of birdsong.

The assessment of songbird complexity is firmly linked to knowledge of sound-producing mechanisms, and now that peripheral contributions to song structure must be added. The task has become even more challenging. At last, they remain the question of whether nonlinear dynamics might also be mixed up in singing by other species of bird.

The nonlinear effects contributing to the temporal and acoustic pattern in bird vocalizations will be described. Also, nonlinearity is well known in the physiology of the human vocal organ. But to those who suffer from roughness of voice, it must be of little comfort to know that nonlinearity can also be a mechanism to enhance vocal properties.

The well-known debate between Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein on the nature of quantum reality, a well asked question central to their debate the nature of quantum interference has resurfaced. Dürr, Nonn, and Rempe, have used an atom interferometer to show that Schrödinger’s concept of ‘entanglement’ between the states of particles is the key to wave-particle duality, and to understand much that is weird about quantum mechanics.

This is quite different from the usual textbook explanation of duality in terms of unavoidable measurement disturbances. It confirms that entanglement is essential in establishing quantum weirdness and in the emergence of classical behavior at larger scales. Quantum entities can act like particles or waves, depending on how they are observed.

They can be diffracted and produce interference patterns (wave behavior) when they can take different paths from some source to a detector in the usual example. The electrons or photons go through two slits and form an interference pattern on the screen behind. On the other hand, with an appropriate detector put along one of the paths, the quantum entities can be detected at a specific place and time, as if they are point-like particles.

But any attempt to determine which path is taken by a quantum object destroys the interference pattern. The central mystery of quantum physics, and Bohr called this vague principle ‘complementarily’, and explained it in terms of the uncertainty principle, put forward by Werner Heisenberg, his postbox at the time.

To persuade Einstein that wave-particle duality is a vital part of quantum mechanics. Bohr constructed models of quantum measurements that showed the futility of trying to determine which path was taken by a quantum object in an interference experiment. As soon as enough information is acquired for this determination, the quantum interferences must vanish.

Because any act of observing will impart uncontrollable momentum kicks to the quantum object. This is quantified by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which relates uncertainty in positional information to uncertainty in momentum when the position of an entity is con-strained, the momentum must be randomized to a certain degree.

This explanation in terms of the uncertainty principle has become a talisman foursome, but it has left others uneasy, as it views the measurement and momentum kicks as ‘locally realistic’ in other words, as idealized classical measurements, rather than quantum mechanical phenomena them-selves.

This is a treacherous position, and it has led to a debate in this journal between a group centered on the Max-Planck Institute for Quantum Optics and one in Auckland, on whether momentum kicks are necessary to explain the two-slit experiment. Apparently, momentum is involved, because a diffraction pattern is a map of the momentum distribution in the experiment.

But how is it involved? Is it everything, as Bohr would have claimed? This is the question addressed by Dürr. Who has studied the interference fringes produced when a beam of cold atoms is diffracted by standing waves of light? Their interferometer displays fringes of high contrast but when they encode within the atoms information as to which path is taken, the fringes disappear entirely. The internal labeling of paths does not even need to be read out to destroy the interferences: all you need is the option of being able to read it out.

Read More – The Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina) / Blue-ringed Octopus – World’s Most Venomous Marine Animals / The Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis)

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The Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis)

In the right terms, "Sialia" is the Latinized, neuter plural version of the Greek word sialis, a noun meaning a "kind of bird." Since the Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis) was the first bluebird classified by Carolus Linnaeus in (1707-1778). He gave it the species name sialis, though he placed it in the genus Motacilia which is now reserved for the wagtails. It was William Swainson (1789-1855), who, in 1827, decided that the bluebirds needed a genus of their own within the thrush family (Turdidae).

He selected the generic name "Sialia" which he simply adapted from the species name Sialia which Linnaeus had used. Therefore, the scientific name for the Eastern Bluebird is Sialia sialis. Similarly, the Western Bluebird and Mountain Bluebird, the two other species within the genus, were named Stellemexieana and Sialia currucoides respectively.

Their species names are descriptive of their locations. All three-bluebird species are native only 10 the North Ameri can continent, although each inhabits different regions generally separated by the Rocky Mountains and by altitudinal preferences. While the adult birds all show differing plumages, the young of all three species look remarkably alike, prominently displaying spotted breasts and large white eye-rings.

This similarity in plumage was the principal reason the Society chose the juvenal bluebird for its logo. Since bluebirds almost always choose to raise their young in small enclosed cavities, a young bluebird sitting near a nesting box seemed to -symbolize our mission. The hope of any species resides in its young. Because of bluebird nesting preferences, the survival of their young may depend on the nesting box, especially since natural cavities, for a variety of reasons, are disappearing rapidly.

The theme of bluebird young nurtured in man-made structures will be a recurring one in our art and literature. We hope that this theme will remind all about the plight of the bluebird and will stimulate action which will allow this beautiful creature to prosper. many years bluebirds have been in trouble trying, usually in vain, to maintain their population.

Various factors have been involved in the bluebird population decline, but the principal causes are believed to be a shortage of the natural cavities they require for nesting plus severe co petition from the alien House Sparrows and European Starlings for most available cavities. Consequently, efforts to help the bluebird have been confined largely to supplying them with nesting boxes mounted in suitable habitat, and in trying to protect the bird s during the nesting season from their natural and imported enemies.

Public concern over the plight of the bluebird has increased enormously in recent years. Hundreds of people have become actively involved in helping these beautiful birds and many thousands of bluebird nesting boxes have been erected throughout the United States and Canada. A brief review of some of the important milestones in the bluebird conservation effort should, therefore, be of interest.

Before the advent of the white man in North America, American Indians were said to have erected hollowed-out gourds in their Villages to attract Purple Martin s. The purpose was evidently to help control objectionable flying insects since martins consume large numbers of such insects. Hollowed-out gourds are still used to attract martins, particularly in some parts of the South.

Since bluebirds frequently use these gourds for nesting, it is assumed that they also used some of the gourds supplied by the Indians before any Europeans settled in America. This then probably represents the beginning of the custom of attracting bluebirds by supplying artificial nesting sites.

In early Colonial times, the Eastern Bluebird is known n to have been much admired and was often called the " blue robin " since it reminded the colonists of their beloved European Robin. The bluebird gradually became a symbol of love, hope, and happiness.

This symbolism persists today. Through the years the bluebird has been mentioned more frequently than any other bird in American poetry and in the lyric s of our popular songs. It seems probable that some of the early colonists attracted bluebird’s close to their homes with nesting boxes of some sort, although document at ion of this is obscure.

The bluebirds were very active, flying about, eating weed seeds, cat chin g Insects, walking about on the ground and gravel road and even perching on top of the air vent of the buried gas tank. They were only a short distance from the truck, often only a few feet from it. It was a most enjoyable lunch hour for both of us.

A nesting box mounted six feet or more above the ground on a smooth metal pole, such as a piece of galvanized water pipe, and located 75 feet or more from any wooded area is unlikely to be of any interest to flying squirrels. These beautiful little animals feel at home only in or very close to woodlands. If the mounting pole is kept covered with soft automobile grease during the nesting season the box will be still better protected from squirrels and most other climbing predators.

Read More – The Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina) / Blue-ringed Octopus – World’s Most Venomous Marine Animals

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Eastern Newt (salamanders) Food Habitats

Notophthalmus, the genus comprising the eastern newts, inhabits eastern North America. A different genus, Taricha, comprises the western newts along the Pacific coast of North America. Unlike other salamanders, the skin of newts is rough-textured, not slimy. Eastern newts are primarily aquatic; western newts are terrestrial.

The life cycle of eastern newts is complex. Females deposit their eggs into shallow surface waters. After hatching, the larvae remain aquatic for 2 to several months before transforming into brightly colored terrestrial forms, called efts. Post larval migration of efts from ponds to land may take place from July through November.

But the timing varies between populations. Efts live on land (forest floor) for 3 to 7 years. They then return to the water and assume adult characteristics. In changing from an eft to an adult, the newt develops fins and the skin changes to permit aquatic respiration.

Occasionally newts omit the terrestrial eft stage, especially in the species located in the southeast coastal plain and along the Massachusetts coast. These aquatic juveniles have the same adaptations (i.e., smooth skin and flattened tail) as the aquatic adults but are not sexually mature.

Under favorable conditions, adults are permanently aquatic; however, adults may migrate to land after breeding due to dry ponds, high water temperatures, and low oxygen tension. The life cycle of western newts does not include the eft stage.

The eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) has both aquatic and terrestrial forms. The aquatic adult is usually yellowish-brown or olive-green to dark brown above, yellow below. The land-dwelling eft is orange-red to reddish-brown, and its skin contains tetrodotoxin, a neurotoxin and powerful emetic.

There are four subspecies of eastern newts:

1. N. v. viridescens (red-spotted newt; ranges from Nova Scotia west to Great Lakes and south to the Gulf states).
2. N. v. dorsalis (broken-striped newt; ranges along the coastal plain of the Carolinas).
3. N. v. louisianensis (central newt; ranges from western Michigan to the Gulf).
4. N. v. piaropicola(peninsula newt; restricted to peninsular Florida).

Neoteny occurs commonly in the peninsula and broken-striped newts. In the central newt, neoteny is frequent in the southeastern coastal plain. In the red-spotted newt, neoteny is rare. Adult eastern newts usually are 6.5 to 10.0 cm in total length. In North Carolina, N. v. dorsalisefts ranged from 2.1 to 3.8 cm snout-to-vent length (SVL).

That excludes the tail, and adults ranged from 2.0 to 4.4 cm SVL. The aquatic juveniles 1 year of age to range from 2.0 to 3.2 cm SVL. Adult eastern newts weigh approximately 2 to 3 g. Whereas the efts generally weigh 1 to 1.5 g. Neotenic newts are mature and capable of reproduction but retain the larval form, appearance, and habits.

Habitat

Larval and adult eastern newts are found in ponds, especially those with abundant submerged vegetation, and in weedy areas of lakes, marshes, ditches, backwaters, and pools of shallow slow-moving streams or other unpolluted shallow or semi-permanent water. Terrestrial efts inhabit mixed and deciduous forests and are found in moist areas, typically under damp leaves, brush piles, logs, and stumps, usually in wooded habitats. Adequate surface litter is important, especially during dry periods, because efts seldom burrow.

Eastern Newt Food Habits

Adult eastern newts are opportunistic predators that prey underwater on worms, insects and their larvae (e.g., mayfly, caddisfly, midge, and mosquito larvae), small crustaceans and mollusks, spiders, amphibian eggs, and occasionally small fish. Newts capture prey at the surface of the water and on the bottom of the pond, as well as in the water column.

The shed skin (exuvia) is eaten and may comprise greater than 5 percent of the total weight of food items of both the adult and eft diets. Snails are an important food source for the terrestrial eft. Efts feed only during rainy summer periods. In late August and September, efts often were found clustered around decaying mushrooms feeding on adult and larval dipterans. In a northern hardwood-hemlock forest in New York, the most prey of adult migrants and immature efts were from the upper litter layer, soil surface, or low vegetation.

Temperature regulation and daily activities

Adult newts are often seen foraging in shallow water, and efts are often found in large numbers on the forest floor after it rains. Efts may be found on the open forest floor even during daylight hours, but they rarely emerge if the air temperature is below 10C.

Hibernation

Most adults remain active all winter underwater on pond bottoms or in streams. Some adults overwinter on land and migrate to ponds during the spring to breed. If the water body freezes to the bottom, adults may be forced to hibernate on land or to migrate to another pool. Efts hibernate on land, burrowing under logs and debris. It is observed that efts migrated to ponds for the first time in the spring and fall.

Breeding activities and social organization. In south-central New York, breeding takes place in late winter or early spring, usually in lakes, ponds, and swamps. Ovulation and egg deposition occur over an extended period. Females overwintering on land can store sperm for at least 10 months.

Spawning underwater, the female deposits eggs singly on leaves of submerged plants, hiding and wrapping each in vegetation. The time to hatching depends on temperature. Smith (1961) found typical incubation periods to be 14 to 21 days in Illinois, whereas the incubation period observed 21 to 56 days.

Growth and metamorphosis

In late summer or early fall, the larvae transform into either aquatic juveniles or terrestrial efts that low larval density stimulated neoteny in larvae under experimental conditions. Larval growth rates were higher in ponds with low larval densities. Growth rates for aquatic juveniles are highest in the spring; however, maximum seasonal growth for the terrestrial efts occurs between June and September when the temperature is optimal for active foraging.

Home range and resources. For adult newts, the distance between capture and recapture sites to be about 7 m, indicating small home ranges. It did not find any defined home range or any territoriality for males. Most efts around a pond in Pennsylvania remained within 1.5 m of the shore. The home range for terrestrial efts in a Massachusetts woodland to be 270 m² and located approximately 800 m from the ponds where the adults and larvae were located.

Population density. Populations of aquatic adults may reach high local densities, whereas terrestrial efts exhibit lower population densities. Recorded population densities for terrestrial efts range from 34 per hectare (ranging from 20 to 50 efts per hectare) in a North Carolina mixed deciduous forest to 300 per hectare in a Massachusetts woodland. The density of 1.4 adult newts per m² (14,000 adult newts per hectare) in a shallow pond in North Carolina in the winter, whereas the summer population density was only 0.2 adults per m² (2,000 adults per hectare).

Many populations of the eastern newt reach sexual maturity when the eft stage returns to the water and changes to the adult form. However, under certain conditions such as low larval density, most of the larvae present have been shown to metamorphose directly into adults or even into sexually mature larvae.

In experimental ponds, densities of 22 larvae per m² resulted in metamorphosis to eft by the majority, while a density of 5.5 larvae per m²resulted in metamorphosis directly to the adult form or sexual maturation without metamorphosis (Harris, 1987). Adult density also influences reproduction.

The doubling adult density resulted in a reduction of offspring produced to one-quarter that produced by adults at the lower density (i.e., from 36 offspring per female in tanks containing 1.1 females per m² to 9.7 offspring per female in tanks containing 2.2 females per m²). The adult life expectancy 2.1 breeding seasons for males and 1.7 breeding seasons for females. Amphibian blood leeches (ectoparasites) are likely to be a primary source of mortality for adults; they also prey directly on larvae.

Similar Species

The black-spotted newt (Notophthalmus meridionalis) is similar in size (7.5 to 11.0 cm) to the eastern newt. It has large black spots and is found in south Texas in ponds, lagoons, and swamps. There is no eft stage.

The striped newt (Notophthalmus perstriatus) is smaller (5.2 to 7.9 cm) than the eastern newt and ranges from southern Georgia to central Florida. It is found in almost any body of shallow, standing water.

The western newts (Taricha) are found along the Pacific coast. They do not undergo the eft stage but rather transform into land-dwelling adults that return to the water at breeding time.

Other small salamanders are similar but vary by having slimy skin and conspicuous costal grooves. They differ in life history, however; in the family Plethudontidae, all are lungless and breathe through thin, moist skin. Many are completely terrestrial.

Raccoon (raccoons, coatis, ringtails)

Procyonids are medium-sized omnivores that range throughout much of North America. Raccoons, coatis, and ringtails feed on insects, small mammals, birds, lizards, and fruits. Ringtails are much smaller and slenderer than raccoons and consume a higher proportion of animal matter. Coatis are slightly smaller than racoons and are limited in their distribution in the United States to just north of the Mexican border.

The raccoon (Procyon lotor) is the most abundant and widespread medium-sized omnivore in the North America. They are found throughout Mexico, Central America, the United States. Except at the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains, and into southern Canada. During the last 50 years, raccoon populations in the United States have increased greatly.

Raccoon Nocturnal

In suburban areas, they frequently raid garbage cans and dumps. Raccoons are preyed on by bobcats, coyotes, foxes, and great horned owls. Twenty-five subspecies are recognized in the United States and Canada.

However, most investigators do not identify the subspecies studied because different subspecies inhabit essentially nonoverlapping geographic ranges. Though raccoons are mainly nocturnal, they do often get some stuff done during the day. Hence traditionally they come out only during the nighttime hours to scrounge for food. Moreover, many humans hear raccoon noises at night due to their nocturnal habits.

Body Size

Raccoons measure from 46 to 71 cm with a 20 to 30 cm tail. Body weights vary by location, age, and sex from 3 to 9 kg. The largest raccoons recorded are from Idaho and nearby states, while the smallest reside in the Florida Keys. Juveniles do not reach adult size until at least the end of their second year. 

In the autumn, fat reserves account for 20 to 30 percent or more of the raccoon's weight.

The juveniles gained weight almost linearly until mid-November, after which they began to lose weight until April. Weight loss in adults and yearlings can reach 50 percent during the 4 months of winter dormancy (e.g., 4.3-kg loss for a 9.1-kg raccoon). Raccoons are active all year, winter weight losses are less, 16 to 17 percent on average.

Habitat

Raccoons are found near virtually every aquatic habitat, particularly in hardwood swamps, mangroves, floodplain forests, and freshwater and saltwater marshes. They are also common in suburban residential areas and cultivated and abandoned farmlands and may forage in farmyards. The permanent water supply, tree dens, and available food are essential. Raccoons use surface waters for both drinking and foraging.

Food Habits

The raccoon is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder. Although primarily active from sunset to sunrise. The raccoons will change their activity period to accommodate the availability of food and water.

The salt marsh raccoons may become active during the day to take advantage of low tide. Raccoons feed primarily on fleshy fruits, nuts, acorns, and corn but also eat grains, insects, frogs, crayfish, eggs, and virtually any animal and vegetable matter.

The proportion of different foods in their diet depends on location and season, although plants are usually a more important component of the diet. They may focus on a preferred food, such as turtle eggs, when it is available.

They also will feed on garbage and carrion. Typically, it is only in the spring and early summer that raccoons eat more animal than plant material. Their late summer and fall diets consist primarily of fruits. In winter, acorns tend to be the most important food, although raccoons will take any corn or fruits that are still available.

Temperature Regulation and Molt

From the central United States into Canada, raccoons undergo a winter dormancy lasting up to 4 months. It is not a true hibernation, however, and they can be easily awakened. Animals in the south are active year-round. Snow cover, more than low temperatures, triggers winter dormancy. The raccoon's annual molt begins early in spring and lasts about 3 months.

Breeding activities and social organization

Although solitary, adult raccoons come together for a short time during the mating period. Which begins earlier (January to March) in their northern range than in their southern range (March to June). Male and female home ranges overlap freely, and each male may mate with several females during the breeding season.

The most common group of raccoons is a mother and her young of that year. Further north in their range, a family will den together for the winter and break up the following spring. Males are territorial toward one another but not toward females; females are not territorial.

Home Range and Resources

The size of a raccoon's home range depends on its sex and age, habitat, food sources, and the season. Values from a few hectares to more than a few thousand hectares have been reported, although home ranges of a few hundred hectares appear to be most common.

In general, home ranges of males are larger than those of females, the home range of females with young is restricted, and winter ranges are smaller than ranges at other times of the year for both sexes. During the winter, raccoons commonly den in hollow trees.

They also use the burrows of other animals such as foxes, groundhogs, skunks, and badgers. These sites are used for sleeping during warmer periods. After wintering in one den, the female will choose a new den in which to bear her young. The cubs leave the den, the family will not use it again that year.

Population Density

Population density depends on the quality and quantity of food resources and den sites. Values between 0.005 and 1.5 raccoons per hectare have been reported, although 0.1 to 0.2 per hectare is more common.

Populations exceeding one raccoon per hectare have been reported in residential areas. Although raccoons may prefer tree dens over ground dens, particularly for raising young. The raccoon densities in an area with few tree dens but numerous ground dens.

Males generally are not sexually mature by the time of the first regular breeding season following their birth, but they may mature later that summer or fall. Females may become pregnant in their first year. In a review of several studies, that up to 60 percent of both wild and captive females’ mate and produce litters in their first year.

The pregnancy rates of yearlings from 38 to 77 percent. After their first year, almost all females breed annually. Females produce only one litter each year, and the female alone cares for the young. With some exceptions the larger litter sizes usually occur in the raccoon's northern range.

Some juveniles of both sexes disperse from the areas where they were born during the fall or winter of their first year, while others stay and raise young within their parents' home range. The highest mortality rates occur within the first 2 years; the age structure of populations in Alabama suggests that mortality is higher for subadults than for juveniles.

Raccoon Noises

Raccoon is famous to make different type of sounds, i.e., purring, low grunt, loud purr, chittering, growling, snarling, whimpering, hissing, and screeching like owl’s whistle. However, juvenile raccoon sounds consist of crying, whining, and mewing. Raccoon make growl noise when they feel any danger indicate the presence to home owner.

Similar Species

1. The coati (Nasua nasua) is slightly smaller than the raccoon (4 to 6 kg) but with a much longer tail (51 to 64 cm). Ranging throughout Central America from Panama to Mexico. The coati is rare in the United States where it inhabits open forests of the southwest, near the Mexican border.

It forages primarily for grubs and tubers but also feeds on fruits, nuts, bird eggs, lizards, scorpions, and tarantulas. Coatis roll arthropods on the ground to remove wings and scales.

2. The ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) is smaller (36 to 41 cm; 0.9 to 1.13 kg) than the raccoon, with a tail equal to its body length. It ranges throughout the southwestern United States into northern California and Oregon, inhabiting chaparral, rocky ridges, and cliffs near water.

Ringtails are omnivorous like the raccoon but consume a higher proportion of animal matter, feeding mainly on small mammals, insects, birds, and lizards as well as fruits. They den in caves or crevices along cliffs, hollow trees, under rocks, and in unused buildings. Although ringtails sometimes live in colonies, mated pairs are more common. More nocturnal than the raccoon, the ringtail is only active at dawn and dusk.

Lifespan of Raccoons

In everyday life, Raccoons must fight with proper food, escape predators and life-threatening endeavors. The combination of these facts diminishes the lifespan in wild to 2 to 3 years. The high death rate make negative affects the lifespan of Raccoons. In some odd cases, Raccoons lifespan extend to 5 to 6 years.

The Bullfrog Facts

There are typical frogs with adults being truly amphibious. They tend to live at the edge of water bodies and enter the water to catch prey, flee danger, and spawn. The bullfrog's (Rana catesbeiana) natural range includes the eastern and central United States and southeastern Canada.

However, it has been introduced in many areas in the western United States and other parts of North America. It is continuing to expand its range, apparently at the expense of several native species in many locations.

Size of Bullfrog

The bullfrog is the largest North American ranid. The adults usually range between 9 and 15 cm in length from snout-to-vent length (SVL) and exceptional individuals can reach one half kilogram or more in weight. The males are usually smaller than females. Frogs exhibit indeterminate growth, and bullfrogs continue to increase in size for at least 6 years after metamorphosis.

Habitat

The Adult bullfrogs live at the edges of ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams large enough to avoid crowding and with sufficient vegetation to provide easily accessible cover. Small streams are used when a better habitat is lacking. Bullfrogs require permanent bodies of water because the tadpoles generally require 1 or more years to develop prior to metamorphosis. Small frogs favor areas of very shallow water where short grasses or other vegetation or debris offer cover. Larger bullfrogs seem to avoid such areas. Tadpoles tend to congregate around green plants.

Food habits

The adult R. catesbeianaare indiscriminate and aggressive predators, feeding at the edge of the water and among water weeds on any available small animals, including insects, crayfish, other frogs and tadpoles, minnows, snails, young turtles, and occasionally small birds, small mammals, and young snakes.

Bullfrogs often focus on locally abundant foods (e.g., cicadas, meadow voles). Crustaceans and insects probably make up the bulk of the diet in most areas. Moreover, Bullfrog tadpoles consume primarily aquatic plant material and some invertebrates, but also scavenge dead fish and eat live or dead tadpoles and eggs.

Temperature regulation and daily activities.

Bullfrogs forage by day. They thermoregulate behaviorally by positioning themselves relative to the sun and by entering or leaving the water. the body temperatures measured in bullfrogs during their normal daily activities averaged 30C and ranged from 26 to 33C. At night, their body temperatures were found to range between 14.4 and 24.9C.

Tadpoles also select relatively warm areas, 24 to 30C. Despite this narrow range of temperatures in which bullfrogs normally maintain themselves, they are not immobilized by moderately lower temperatures. The metabolic rate of bullfrogs increases with increasing body temperature. Between 15 and 25C.

Hibernation

Most bullfrogs hibernate in mud and leaves underwater beginning in the fall, but some bullfrogs in the southern states may be active year-round. They emerge sometime in the spring, usually when air temperatures are about 19 to 24C and water temperatures are at least 13 to 14C. Bullfrogs emerge from hibernation later than other ranid species.

Breeding activities and social organization.

Bullfrogs spawn at night close to shorelines in areas sheltered by shrubs. The timing and duration of the breeding season vary depending on the location. In the southern states, the breeding season extends from spring to fall, whereas, in the northern states, it is restricted to late spring and summer.

Males tend to be territorial during the breeding season, defending their calling posts and oviposition sites (i.e., submerged vegetation nearshore). However, the female visits to the pond tend to be brief and sporadic. Some males mate with several females whereas others, usually younger and smaller males, may not breed at all in a given year. Females attach their eggs, contained in floating films of jelly, to submerged vegetation. Adults are otherwise rather solitary occupying their own part of a stream or pond.

Tadpole and metamorphosis.

Eggs hatch in 3 to 5 days. Temperatures above 32C have been shown to cause abnormalities in tadpoles and above 35.9C to kill embryos. Tadpole growth rates increase with increasing oxygen levels, food availability, and water temperature. Tadpole gill ventilation at 20C can generate a branchial water flow of almost 0.3 ml/g-min. Metamorphosis from a tadpole to a frog can occur as early as 4 to 6 months in the southern parts of its range; however, most tadpoles metamorphose from 1 to 3 years after hatching, depending on latitude and temperature.

Range

The species' home range includes its foraging areas and refugees in and around aquatic environments. Home range size decreases with increasing bullfrog density, and males tend to use larger home ranges than females. Bullfrogs tend to stay in the same pools throughout the summer months if the water level is stable.

During the breeding season, adult males establish territories that they defend against conspecific males. During the non-breeding season, found no evidence of the territorial defense. Males often do not return to the same pond the following spring.

During the breeding season, each breeding male may defend a few meters of shoreline. The densities of females and non-breeding males vary with time of day and season and are difficult to estimate. Tadpoles can be present locally in extremely high densities.

The sexual maturity is attained in about 1 to 3 years after metamorphosis, depending on latitude. Only females that are at least 2 years past metamorphosis mate during the early breeding season. The males and females 1-year past metamorphosis may breed during the later breeding periods.

Also, some older females have been observed to mate and to lay a second clutch during the later breeding period estimated the minimum breeding length for females to be 123 to 125 mm SVL. Mortality of tadpoles is high, and adult frogs are unlikely to live beyond 5 to 8 years post metamorphosis.

In some areas, snapping turtles may be responsible for a large component of adult bullfrog mortality. The pig frog (Rana grylio) is smaller than the bullfrog (8 to 14 cm) and is found in South Carolina to south Florida and south Texas. The remaining ranid species are more similar in size to the green (or bronze) frog.

Read More – The Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina)

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Northern Short Tailed Shrew

Most species are primarily vermivorous and insectivorous, but some also eat small birds and mammals. The northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) ranges throughout the north-central and northeastern United States and into southern Canada.

Northern Short Tailed Shrew Diet

It eats insects, worms, snails, and other invertebrates and also may eat mice, voles, frogs, and other vertebrates. Because they prey on other vertebrates, shrews can concentrate DDT (and presumably other bio accumulative chemicals) to levels 10 times higher than either Peromyscus and Clethrionomys. Shrews are an important component of the diet of many owls and are also prey for other raptors, fox, weasels, and other carnivorous mammals.

Body size.

Short-tailed shrews are 8 to 10 cm in length with a 1.9 to 3.0 cm tail. The short-tailed shrew is the largest member of the genus, with some weighing over 22 g. Some studies have found little or no sexual dimorphism in size, while other reports show that males are slightly larger than females.

Metabolism.

Short-tailed shrews are active for about 16 percent of each 24-hour period, in periods of around 4.5 minutes at a time. The shrew's metabolism is inversely proportional to the ambient temperature, within the range of 0 to 25C. Sleeping metabolism is half that associated with normal, exploring activity.

However, the overall metabolism for shrews spending equal amounts of time sleeping and exploring as a function of ambient temperature. A linear increase in standard (near basal) metabolism with decreasing temperature that is similar to that for interrupted sleep. The thermoneutral zone, the standard metabolic rate of the short-tailed shrew is approximately 190 percent the metabolic rate predicted from body weight.

Habitat.

Short-tailed shrews inhabit a wide variety of habitats and are common in areas with abundant vegetative cover. Short-tailed shrews need cool, moist habitats because of their high metabolic and water-loss rates.

Food Habits

The short-tailed shrew is primarily carnivorous. Stomach analyses indicate that insects, earthworms, slugs, and snails can make up most of the shrew's food, while plants, fungi, millipedes, centipedes, arachnids, and small mammals also are consumed.

Small mammals are consumed more when invertebrates are less available. Shrews can prey on small vertebrates because they produce a poison secretion in their salivary glands that is transmitted during biting. The short-tailed shrew stores food, especially in the autumn and winter.

The short-tailed shrews cached most of the prey captured. Short-tailed shrews consume approximately 40 percent more food in winter than in summer. The shrew must consume water to compensate for its high evaporative water loss, even though it obtains water from both food and metabolic oxidation.

The short-tailed shrew's evaporative water loss increases with increasing ambient temperature even within its thermoneutral zone. Short-tailed shrews' digestive efficiency is about 90 percent.

Temperature Regulation and Molt

The short-tailed shrew does not undergo torpor but uses non-shivering thermogenesis (NST) to compensate for heat loss during cold stress in winter. The short-tailed shrew exhibits three molts.

Two are seasonal molts, the first in October and November replaces summer with winter pelage and occurs in first- and second-year shrews. The spring molt can occur any time from February to October. The third molt occurs in post juveniles that have reached adult size.

Breeding Activities and Social Organization

The short-tailed shrew probably breeds all year, including limited breeding in winter even in the northern portions of its range. In Illinois, males were found to be most active from January to July, females from March to September.

There are two peak breeding periods, in the spring and in late summer or early fall. The home ranges of short-tailed shrews in summer overlap both within and between sexes. Although females with young do exhibit some territoriality. Nomadic shrews are either young of the year or adults moving to areas with more abundant prey.

Home Range and Resources

Short-tailed shrews inhabit round, underground nests and maintain underground runaways, usually in the top 10 cm of soil. But sometimes as deep as 50 cm. In winter, nonbreeding home ranges can vary from 0.03 to 0.07 ha at high prey densities to 1 to 2.2 ha during low prey densities with a minimum of territory overlap. In the summer, ranges of opposite sex animals overlap, but same sex individuals do not; females with young exclude all others from their area.

Population Density

Population densities vary by habitat and season. In east-central Illinois, population density was higher in bluegrass than in tallgrass or alfalfa. In all three of these habitats, the short-tailed shrew exhibited annual abundance cycles, with peak densities ranging from 2.5 to 45 shrews per hectare, depending on the habitat. The peaks occurred from July to October (12.9/ha average for all three habitats), apparently just following peak precipitation levels.

In winter mortality up to 90 percent has been reported for the short-tailed shrew. however, mortality rates in winter may be closer to 70 percent, which is similar to the average monthly mortality rate he found for subadult animals. Several litters, averaging four to five pups, are born each year.

Similar Species

The masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) (length 5.1 to 6.4 cm; weight 3 to 6 g) is smaller than the short-tailed shrew and is the most common shrew in moist forests, open country, and brush of the northern United States and throughout Canada and Alaska. It feeds primarily on insects.

Merriam's shrew (Sorex merriami) (5.7 to 6.4 cm) is found in arid areas and sagebrush or bunchgrass of the western United States and is smaller than the short-tailed shrew.

The Smokey shrew (Sorex fumeus) (6.4 to 7.6 cm; 6 to 9 g), smaller than the short-tailed, prefers birch and hemlock forests with a thick leaf mold on the ground to burrow in. It uses burrows made by small mammals or nests in stumps, logs, and among rocks. Range is limited to the northeast United States and east of the Great Lakes in Canada.

The southeastern shrew (Sorex longirostris) is 5.1 to 6.4 cm; 3 to 6 g prefers moist areas. Found mostly in open fields and woodlots, its range is limited. to the southeastern United States. It nests in dry grass or leaves in a shallow depression.

The long-tailed shrew (Sorex dispar) is 7.0 cm; 5 to 6 g inhabits cool, moist, rocky areas in deciduous or deciduous-coniferous forests of the northeast, extending south to the North Carolina and Tennessee border.

The vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) is 5.9 to 7.3 cm; 7 ± g inhabits marshy wetlands and forest streams. Its range is confined to the western United States, excluding most of California and Nevada. In addition to insects, it also eats plant material.

The Pacific shrew (Sorex pacificus) (8.9 cm) is slightly larger than the short-tailed shrew. It is limited to redwood and spruce forests, marshes, and swamps of the northern California and southern Oregon coasts.

The dwarf shrew (Sorex nanus) (6.4 cm) is rare throughout its limited range in the western United States.

The least shrew (Cryptotis parva) (5.6 to 6.4 cm; 4 to 7 g) is easily distinguished from other shrews by its cinnamon color. It inhabits grassland and marsh; its range is like the short-tailed shrew but does not extend as far north.

The desert shrew (Notiosorex crawfordi) (Gray shrew) (5.1 to 6.6 cm) is rarely seen and is found only in the arid conditions, chaparral slopes, alluvial fans, and around low desert shrubs of the extreme southwest. It nests beneath plants, boards, or debris.